Fleas & Lice

Flea, with nearly 2,000 species and subspecies fleas thrive in warm and humid environment. Fleas are wingless parasites which feed on the blood of their host. In the case, on your cat, or pet. The most common type of flea in world is Ctenocephalides felis, that affect cat.

Lice, tiny insect that live on humans and feed on blood. When a large number of lice live and multiply on a person.

FLEAS.

What fleas look like? Adult small, wingless, about 2.5mm long and their body are shiny and reddish brown in color. Fleas commonly prefer to feed on hairy animal, such as cat, rabbit, dog, goat and etc. Next, They are capable of jumping long distances.

Life cycle of fleas?

What are signs of a fleas?

Some animal can have very heavy infestations without being bothered. Usually, they are extremely sensitive to the saliva in a flea bite. The sign also including, itching, biting and scratching especially around a neck and ear. Next, may develop crusting if they are sensitive to the saliva. Besides that, may notice fleas egg and droppings in his bedding.

Do fleas carry disease?

Yes, fleas can transmit diseases when taking a blood meal from a host or via contaminated fecal pellets. Some flea-borne diseases include:

Plague – transmitted by the Oriental rat flea.

Flea-borne typhus, also known as murine typhus – transmitted by the bacteria-infested feces of infected cat fleas when they enter the body at the time of the flea’s bite or from scratching the area of the bite.

Bartonellosis –Oriental rat flea and cat flea bites may transmit cat scratch disease.

Flea tapeworm – can be transmitted if children accidently eat an infected flea or contact infected feces.

Tungiasis – a tropical area ailment that is caused by the chigoe flea (Tunga penetrans) when it burrows into the skin and takes a blood meal. As the adult female feeds, she grows larger due to the development of her eggs. The bite of the chigoe flea often results in secondary infections and itching.

LICE.

Lice spread easily from one person to another through close contact or through shared clothing or personal items (such as hats or hairbrushes). A louse cannot jump or fly.

There are different kinds of lice live on humans, such as:

1. Head lice are usually found in hair, most often on the back of the neck and behind the ears. Head lice are common in preschool and elementary school-age children. Adults can get them too, especially adults who live with children.
2. Pubic lice, also called crabs, are usually found in the pubic area. But they may also be found on facial hair, on eyelashes, on eyebrows, in the armpits, on chest hair, and, rarely, on the scalp.
3. Body lice, live and lay eggs (nits) in the seams of clothing. The lice are on the body only when they feed.

Life cycle of Lice?

How do I know if I has lice?

There are different symptom, depending on type of lice you have. 

1. Head lice may not cause any symptoms at first. Itching on the scalp may start weeks or even months after lice have started to spread. Scratching can make the skin raw.
2. Pubic lice cause severe itching. Their bites may cause small marks that look like bruises on the torso, thighs, or upper arms. If pubic lice get on the eyelashes, the edges of the eyelids may be crusted. You may see lice and their eggs at the base of the eyelashes.
3. Body lice cause very bad itching, especially at night. Itchy sores appear in the armpits and on the waist, torso, and other areas where the seams of clothes press against the skin. The lice and eggs may be found in the seams of the person's clothing but are typically not seen on the skin.

How to kill fleas and lice?

Firstly is treating your home for fleas. Need fill shallow bowls of water with dish detergent that is like a toxic swimming pool for fleas.Next, Vacuum, vacuum, vacuum. Vacuum over any affected areas, including high-traffic areas where the pets usually roam. Most fleas will not be able to survive a good tornado of a vacuum! 

Secondly, treating your pet for fleas. You should Clean your pet regularly. Washing your pet will help kill the fleas that are living on it. Besides that, Add deterrents to the pet's meal. Since fleas feed on the blood of animals, you can treat fleas by manipulating what your pet eats such as oral tablets.

The other way, by using syampoo, flea combs, fleas powder and oral suspension. Tell your kids, to avoid head to head contact and not to share comb, brushes, hats or other personal care with anyone else.

There some thing you should't do.

1. Don't use a hairdryer on your child's hair after applying any of the currently available scalp treatments because some contain flammable ingredients.
2. Don't use a conditioner or shampoo/conditioner combination before applying lice medication.
3. Don't wash your child's hair for 1 to 2 days after using a medicated treatment.
4. Don't use sprays or hire a pest control company to try to get rid of the lice, as these treatments can be harmful.
5. Don't use the same medication more than three times on one person. If it doesn't seem to be working, your doctor may recommend another medication.
6. Don't use more than one head lice medication at a time.

"Quality is not an act, it is a habit"

Aristotle

THANK YOU.

Tick & Mite.

Mites.

Mites are 1/64 inch to 1/8 inch (0.4 to 3 mm) in length. Some species of mites live on land, others in water. Some are agricultural pests, feeding on crops and the leaves of fruit trees. Some species carry disease-producing microorganisms; one species causes mange in vertebrates. Other species of mites are beneficial, preying on aphid eggs and nematode worms. The most commonly encountered mites, including those that can adversely affect human health, 

CLOVER MITES (Bryobia spp.)

This mite sometimes enters homes and other buildings by the thousands, causing panic among residents. Though they do not bite or cause health-related problems, clover mites can be a nuisance. If smashed when they crawl over carpets and drapery, the mites leave a red stain. Clover mites can be red, green or brown, and have front legs that are about twice as long as their other legs. They feed on clover, ivy, grasses, fruit trees and other plants. Well-fertilized lawns are favored. Clover mites enter homes when their food plants are removed or dry up. They are most active in fall, and will seek refuge in structures as colder weather approaches, when molting (shedding skin) and when laying eggs. Typical of many mite species, all clover mites are females capable of laying viable eggs without fertilization. They have no need for male mites!

HOUSE DUST MITES (Dermatophagoides spp.)

Much information (and misinformation) has appeared in recent years about house dust mites. Virtually invisible to the naked eye, house dust mites are nevertheless real. It has been shown that, like cockroaches, dust mites and their feces can become airborne and are one of the most common indoor allergens. That is, most persons diagnosed as being allergic to “house dust” are actually allergic to the dust mites whose bodies and feces are major components of dust. Roaches and dust mites have also been implicated in triggering asthma attacks. But, unlike rodent mites, itch mites and chiggers, skin irritation is rarely caused by exposure to dust mites. Although they may “hitchhike” on clothing, dust mites do not live on people. They feed primarily on dander, flakes of dead skin that fall from people and animals. Upholstered furniture, pillows and mattresses typically harbor more dust mites than carpeting.

ITCH MITES (Pyemotes spp.)

These mites prey upon insects. Species including the straw itch mite (P. tritici) infest stored products. Humans are bitten when they contact straw, hay, grasses, leaves, seeds or similar materials harboring the mites. Another species (P. herfsi) also attacks insects living in sheltered locations, including the larvae of midges (gnat-like flies) in leaf galls, and the eggs of cicadas beneath tree bark. When separated from their insect prey, itch mites may contact and bite other animals including humans. 

The mites cannot be seen and the bites are not felt, but leave itchy red marks that can resemble a skin rash. When itch mite populations ‘explode,’ people and other animals may receive numerous bites. Fortunately, the mites cannot live on humans, do not survive indoors, and are not known to transmit disease. 

CHIGGERS (Eutrombicula spp)

The nymph and adult stages prey on insects. It is the six-legged larval stage that typically feeds on rodents or ground dwelling birds but will bite people when they are available. Chigger larvae are red to yellow in color and appear as scarcely visible specks. When they detect the carbon dioxide exhaled by an animal, they climb on soil or vegetation and wave their front legs to contact it, then grasp it with their mouthparts. They do not suck blood but cut into the skin, inject skin-digesting saliva and suck up the liquefied skin. If not dislodged, the chigger will feed for several days. The bite becomes inflamed, hardens and itches. Chiggers spend most of their lives in cracks in the soil. They are typically found in rural, less disturbed areas, but can persist for years on soil in new subdivisions.

SCABIES MITES (Sarcoptes scabiei)

Sarcoptes scabiei are mites that infest mammals, including man. Most human infestations result from person-to-person contact. Although they can transfer from animals to humans and vice versa, several types of scabies mites exist, each having a preferred host species on which it reproduces. In dogs, scabies mites cause mange. Scabies is the most common and important condition resulting from mite infestation of humans. Unlike other mites, scabies mites actually burrow and produce tunnels one centimeter or more in length just below the surface of the skin, in which they lay eggs. The mites are believed to feed on skin and secretions. The entire life cycle (10-17 days for human-infesting scabies mites) is spent on their host. Without a host, they survive only a few days. In previously unexposed individuals, a scabies infestation may go unnoticed for more than a month. Then, severe irritation and itching develops, especially at night.

Tick

Types of tick : soft tick & hard tick.

Hard tick adult males and females have different coloration and females are somewhat larger than males. Hard ticks have a “plate” on their back that is called a scutum. Also, hard ticks have mouthparts that are visible when the tick is viewed from above.

Soft ticks appear to have a wrinkled body, lack a scutum, and the males and females are very close to the same size. Viewing a soft tick from above would give someone the impression that soft ticks do not have mouthparts. However, that is not the case; rather their mouthparts are located on the underside of the body so that the front portion of the tick’s body hides the mouthparts.

Did you know?

Ticks are 1/8 inch to 1 1/8 inch (3 to 29 mm) in length. Ticks live on land, primarily in woods and pastures. Ticks are bloodsucking parasites that can carry disease-producing microorganisms, which they transmit to mammals, birds, and reptiles through a bite in the skin.

Ticks rarely move more than three feet above the ground and cannot jump or fly. However, they can attach to birds, mice, deer, chipmunks, skunks, rabbits, humans and many other animals. they have also been detected in the sea. 

Ticks thrive in humidity and live in areas close to their potential hosts, eg: leaf litter, ends of grass, attached to animals and respond to exhaled carbon dioxide and body heat. They use chemosensors to actually locate a host. They attach to a host by a “stinger” and release an anesthetic compound to prevent the host from feeling the bite. As the tick feeds, a cement-like substance is secreted from the saliva to enhance its capacity to adhere to the skin and extract a blood meal. Ticks also secrete a substance at the site of attachment which functions as an “anesthetic” and allows their presence to go rather unnoticed by the host.

Life cycle of tick

They have 4 life stages including egg, 6 legged larvae, 8 legged nymph, and 8 legged adult. The larvae, nymph and adult stages can all carry and transmit infection. The life cycle of a tick is about two years barring the effects of global warming which may elongate their life cycle. 

The various ticks known to cause disease include Ixodes scapularis (deer tick) generally found in the northeast and upper Midwest and can carryBorrelia, Babesia, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Powassan Encephalitis, tick paralysis, Tularemia, Bartonella and Mycoplasma infections.

Managing tick and mite

• Ticks: Ticks should be manually removed from the reptile using small forceps or tweezers. 
• Grab the tick by the head or mouth parts right where they enter the skin. Do not grasp the tick by the body. 
• Without jerking, pull firmly and steadily directly outward. Do not twist the tick as you are pulling. 
• Using methods such as applying petroleum jelly, a hot match, or alcohol will NOT cause the tick to 'back out.' In fact, these irritants may cause the tick to deposit more disease-carrying saliva in the wound. 
• After removing the tick, place it in a jar of alcohol to kill it. Ticks are NOT killed by flushing them down the toilet. 
• Wash your hands thoroughly. 
• Please do not use your fingers to remove or dispose of the tick. We do not want you in contact with a potentially disease-carrying tick. Do NOT squash the tick with your fingers. The contents of the tick can transmit disease. 
• Turtles and tortoises should NEVER be treated with ivermectin; it is toxic in those species. 
• Snakes and lizards with ticks may also be treated with ivermectin (although this is an off-label use), especially if the ticks are located in areas where they are difficult to remove (e.g., the nostrils). Your veterinarian will be able to prescribe the correct dilution and dose for the medication. 
• Mites: There are numerous treatments used to eliminate mites from reptiles. Many of them can be hazardous to the animal if not applied correctly. Always consult with your veterinarian before using any insecticide/pesticide on your reptile. 
• Water baths: Soaking a reptile in a lukewarm water bath for twenty minutes will drown the mites on the animal's body, but not affect those on the animal's head. 
• Olive oil: Olive oil can be applied to the entire animal. It works by smothering the mites, but it can be messy. . 
• Cyfluthrin: Cyfluthrin can be used to safely treat the premises and eradicate ticks from a tortoise facility. 
• In addition to treating the animal, the cage should be cleaned on a regular basis, disinfecting it with a diluted bleach solution (1-3 ounces of household bleach to one quart of water). 

Most mite and tick infestations are found on newly acquired reptiles. If you are adding a reptile to your collection, remember to quarantine it away from the other reptiles for at least 1 month. Ticks, especially, can travel fairly large distances (into other rooms) and can accidentally be transferred to other animals on your clothing or other items. Always feed, clean the cage, handle that reptile last, etc., and wash hands and utensils well afterward.

Relieving the Itch of Mite Bites

When mites attach to skin, the saliva they secrete causes the intense itch that may be felt for several days after the mite is no longer attached. As soon as possible after walking through chigger-infested areas or being exposed to other mites, you should bathe in hot, soapy water and scrub down with a wash cloth. Oral antihistamines and/or application of a hydrocortisone cream to bites may help to relieve itching. If you develop a severe reaction, then consult your physician. 

THANK YOU!

Vector and Pest Management: Mosquitoes in Malaysia.

In Malaysia there are about 434 species and subspecies of mosquitoes belonging to 20 genera. However, only the genera Anopheles, Aedes , Culex and Mansonia are of medical importance.

Four types of Mosquitoes in Malaysia

Anopheles

Anopheles also can serve as the vectors for canine heartworm Dirofilaria immitis, the filariasis-causing species Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi, and viruses such as one that causes O'nyong'nyong fever. The other disease such as malaria

Aedes

Members of the Aedes genus are known vectors for numerous viral infections. Viruses that cause dengue fever, yellow fever, West Nile fever, chikungunya, and eastern equine encephalitis.

Culex

Vectors of important diseases, such as West Nile virus, filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis and avian malaria.

Mansonia

Mansonia mosquitoes are big, black or brown mosquitoes with sparkling on their wings and legs. Transmit various arboviruses, including Venezuelan equine encephalitis.Mansonioides transmit several arboviruses, Brugian filariasis. Mansonia uniformis, is a vector of Wuchereria bancrofti.

Life cycle:

The life cycle undergoes four stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most adult mosquitoes mate shortly after emergence. Female mosquitoes lay about 30-300 eggs at one time. Eggs are black or brown in color and 1mm or less. In most culinices, the eggs are elongate or oval in shape and laid on the water surface in a raft, but eggs of Mansonia are cylinder and pointed apically and laid in a sticky mass on the underside of aquatic plants. Adedes do not lay their eggs on the water surface, but laid singly above the water line on a moist substrate and can withstand desiccation for months. Eggs of anophelines are boat-shaped and laid singly on the surface of the water.

With a few exceptions, a female mosquito must bite and take blood meal for egg. After a blood meal the mosquito’s abdomen becomes dilated and bright red in color, later becoming a darker red. 

As the blood is digested, eggs are formed and the abdomen becomes whitish posterioly and dark red anteriorly . At this stage the mosquito is half gravid. When all the blood is finally digested and the eggs are fully formed , the mosquito is said to be gravid and ready to lay its eggs.

After eggs-laying or ovipostion the female mosquitoes ready for anther blood meal. The process of blood feeding , digestion and egg formation followed by oviposition is called the gonotropic cycle. In the tropics it takes about 2-3 days, but in colder temperate countries it takes between 7 -14 days.

Did you know?

• Mosquitoes have been around for more than 30 million years.
• Mosquitoes have been honing their skills, experts at finding people to bite. 
• Mosquitoes have a battery of sensors designed to track their prey.
• Mosquitoes can sense carbon dioxide and lactic acid up to 100 feet (36 meters) away.
• Have visual sensor, if you are wearing clothing that contrasts with the background, and especially if you move while wearing that clothing, mosquitoes can see you and zero in on you.
• Have heat sensors which is mosquitoes can detect heat, so they can find warm-blooded mammals and birds very easily once they get close enough.

Mosquito control method.

Here are some tips to consider when trying to avoid mosquito bites:

First of all, no vaccine is available yet for the prevention of dengue infection and there are no specific drugs for its treatment. The other way from environment management which is have to involves any change that prevents or minimizes vector breeding and hence reduces human-vector contact.

Another tips is empty water from containers such as flower pots, birdbaths, pet water dishes, cans, gutters, tires and buckets regularly to disrupt the mosquito breeding cycle. Keep windows and door screens in good working order to prevent mosquitoes from entering your home. If possible, wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants while outdoors, consider staying indoors early in the morning and evening when mosquitoes are most active. 

Next, maintain your swimming pool to prevent mosquito breeding, and report abandoned pools to your local health department. Use mosquito netting over infants carriers when infants are outdoors. Consider using an insect repellent, be sure to follow the label directions for applying the repellent.

FLIES: Fact, Identification & Control.

There are types of flies, such as:-

- Blow fly.

- Bottle fly.

- Drain fly.

- Fruit fly.

- Gnat.

- House Fly.

- Phorid -Humpbacked fly.

More than 100 pathogens are associated with the house fly, including Salmonella, Staphylococcus,E. coli and Shigella. These pathogens can cause disease in humans and animals, including typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery and hepatitis. Sanitation is critical to controlling these pests. Here are some other things you should know about flies and fly control:

- Depending on the species, the life expectancy of a fly is eight days to two months or, in some cases up to a year.

- Flies plague every part of the world except the polar ice caps.

- One pair of flies can produce more than 1 million offspring through their offsprings’ offspring in a matter of weeks.

- Millions of microorganisms may flourish in a single fly’s gut, while a half-billion more swarm over its body and legs.

- Flies spread diseases readily because they move quickly from rotting, disease-laden garbage to exposed human foods and utensils.

- Because they only have two wings, flies land often and therefore can deposit thousands of bacteria each time they land.

- Every time a fly lands, it sloughs off thousands of microbes. If a fly lands on food or utensils, customers may ingest germs that can trigger serious illness such as diarrhea, food poisoning, meningitis and bloodstream infections.

BLOW FLY.

Latin Name

Family Calliphoridae

Appearance

Blow flies are often metallic in appearance, with feathery hairs on the terminal antennal segments of the males. Adult blow flies have sponge-like mouth parts, while maggots have hook-like mouth parts.

Behavior, Diet & Habits

Blow flies belong to the Family Calliphoridae of flies under the Order Diptera. Blow flies are attracted to decaying meat and are typically the first organisms to come into contact with dead animals. The meat of dead animals is essential for larval survival and growth. They are also attracted to plants that give off the smell of rotting meat and as such, can be a pollinator for those plants.

BLOW FLY.

Latin Name

Family Calliphoridae

Appearance

Blow flies are often metallic in appearance, with feathery hairs on the terminal antennal segments of the males. Adult blow flies have sponge-like mouth parts, while maggots have hook-like mouth parts.

Behavior, Diet & Habits

Blow flies belong to the Family Calliphoridae of flies under the Order Diptera. Blow flies are attracted to decaying meat and are typically the first organisms to come into contact with dead animals. The meat of dead animals is essential for larval survival and growth. They are also attracted to plants that give off the smell of rotting meat and as such, can be a pollinator for those plants.

Blow fly larvae.

Blow fly larvae are also known as maggots. Measuring 9 to 22 mm in length, maggots are equipped with hook-like mouthparts and spiracles for breathing. They are soft and pale in color and appear similar to worms or grains of rice. Each body segment of the blow fly maggot has a median row of fleshy tubercles that resemble hair.

Blow fly maggots are generally seen near dead animals. Blow fly eggs are laid in rotting meat, where maggots feed and complete their development before seeking a dry location within which to pupate. After maturing, larvae create outer skins, known as puparia, that look like rat droppings or cockroach egg cases. Pupae develop within the puparium, maturing into adult blowflies.

Different species of blow flies are active at different times: the Calliphora vomitoria are most commonly found on carrion during cooler months, while the Phaenicia sericata are more active in hot seasons. Other species thrive more in the shade, while some require hot temperatures to complete the maggot developmental stage.

Signs of a Blow Fly Infestation

The most common signs of blow flies are either the adults themselves or their larvae.  The adults may be seen resting on surfaces or buzzing around potential food or odor sources. 

FRUIT FLY.

Latin Name

Family Drosophilidae.

Appearance.

Adults are 3 to 4 mm long, may have red eyes, though some are dark eyed, and a tan thorax. The abdomen is black on top, gray underneath. Fruit flies can appear to be brown or tan in color.

Behavior, Diet & Habits

Populations tend to build during the summer, becoming very abundant at harvest time. Indoors, fruit flies are frequently active at all times of the year.

Fruit flies eat ripened fruit and vegetables and fermenting products, fruit fly food, fruit fly feeding habits and fruit fly in bananas.

Reproduction

 Larvae develop in moist areas where organic material and standing water are present. The entire life cycle lasts 25 days or more depending on the environmental conditions and the availability of food.

Signs of a Fruit Fly Infestation

The two most visible signs of fruit fly activity would be the adult flies and the pupae.  Adult flies often are seen flying around in kitchens or trash cans near the decaying fruit or vegetables. 

They also are attracted to liquor and liquor/beer bottles. The mature larvae of fruit flies crawl out of the breeding material to pupate in a dry nearby spot. They sometimes are mistaken for cockroach or rodent droppings but can easily be differentiated by a pair of horns on one end of the pupae..

Fruit Fly Control

It is extremely difficult to rid a home of the common fruit fly. Fruit flies are attracted to sugary, organic materials. As their name suggests, they are commonly found infesting fruit. However, fruit flies are also capable of breeding in decaying meat, trash bins and large spills of soda or alcohol. Any fruit brought home following that should be stored in the refrigerator if appropriate. Regularly wipe counters, clean spills and empty your trash cans to help prevent fruit fly infestations.

The first step in addressing a fruit fly infestation is the destruction of their feeding and breeding grounds. Fruit flies often lay their eggs in rotten fruit and other soft, sweet, organic materials. If you identify a fruit fly infestation in your kitchen, dispose of all over-ripe or damaged fruit. Any subsequently purchased fruit or vegetables should be kept in the refrigerator until the fruit fly infestation dissipates.

If there is no fruit or vegetable matter in your kitchen, check your garbage and recycling bins. Fruit flies may also use unclean drains as breeding grounds. Outdoor drains are likely sources of yard-based fruit flies, as are overripe fruits beneath the trees from which they have fallen.

After isolating the fly breeding ground, control methods may be utilized. Although eradication may require several treatments, the lack of food available to fly populations will eventually cause them to die out.

Other Ways to Get Rid of Fruit Flies in Home

Bacterial digesters are available to pour down infested drains. Bleach can sometimes be effective; although it is rarely stays in the drain long enough to address the accumulated slime that attracts fruit flies. While not effective at eliminating an infestation, fruit fly traps may provide temporary relief by trapping some of the adults.

Types of Fruit Flies

- Mexican fruit fly.

- Citrus fruit fly.

- Olive fruit fly.

- Carribbean fruit fly.

- Mediterranean fruit fly.

HOUSE FLY.

The house fly, Musca domestica Linnaeus, is a well-known cosmopolitan pest of both farm and home. This species is always found in association with humans or the activities of humans.

 It is the most common species found on hog and poultry farms, horse stables and ranches. Not only are house flies a nuisance, but they can also transport disease-causing organisms. Excessive fly populations are not only an irritant to farm workers but, when there are nearby human habitations, a public health problem could occur.

LIFE CYCLE OF HOUSE FLIES.

DID YOU KNOW?

• Adults usually live 15 to 25 days, but may live up to two months. 
• Without food, they survive only about two to three days. 
• Female flies need access to suitable food (protein) to allow them to produce eggs, and manure alone is not adequate. 
• The flies are inactive at night, with ceilings, beams and overhead wires within buildings, trees, and shrubs, various kinds of outdoor wires, and grasses reported as overnight resting sites.
• The house fly is 6 to 7 mm long, with the female usually larger than the male. 
• The female and can be distinguished from the male by the relatively wide space between the eyes (in males, the eyes almost touch). 
• The head of the adult fly has reddish-eyes and sponging mouthparts. 
• The thorax bears four narrow black stripes and there is a sharp upward bend in the fourth longitudinal wing vein. 
• The abdomen is gray or yellowish with dark midline and irregular dark markings on the sides. 
• The underside of the male is yellowish.

HOUSE FLY CONTROL.

The First step in House fly control is exclusion and sanitation. After these measures, you can use insecticides that come in residual forms, aerosols, fogging materials, and baiting forms. Fly traps have long been a favorite.

There are many forms of fly traps, from disposable fly traps to electronic fly light traps with replaceable light bulbs and glue boards.

THANK YOU FOR READING!



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